Belowground Interactions and Implications for Nutrient Use Eco-Efficiency in Cropping Systems

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Belowground interactions play a critical role in determining nutrient use eco-efficiency in cropping systems by regulating how plants access, transform, and retain essential nutrients in the soil environment. These interactions involve complex networks among plant roots, soil microorganisms, and soil physical and chemical properties. Root architecture and exudation patterns influence microbial activity by supplying carbon substrates that stimulate beneficial microbes such as mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth–promoting rhizobacteria, which enhance nutrient mobilization, particularly of nitrogen and phosphorus. At the same time, microbial processes such as mineralization, immobilization, and nitrification govern nutrient availability and losses. In diversified cropping systems, including intercropping and crop rotations, complementary root traits and temporal niche differentiation reduce competition and improve overall nutrient capture. Improved belowground biodiversity also enhances soil structure and organic matter stabilization, leading to greater nutrient retention and reduced leaching or gaseous losses. By strengthening plant–microbe–soil feedbacks, cropping systems can achieve higher yields with lower fertilizer inputs, contributing to sustainable intensification and climate-smart agriculture. Understanding and managing these belowground interactions is therefore essential for designing eco-efficient nutrient management strategies that balance productivity with environmental protection.

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